Behaviorism: Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, Watson (Part 1)

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian psychologist known for his work on classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog, and a bell. Initially, he was measuring the dog's salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.

Pavlov's Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (a neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing food (an unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (an unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (a conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (a conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.

Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So at present, when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical conditioning.

Pavlov also had the following findings:

• Stimulus Generalization. Once a dog has learned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
• Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.
• Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
• Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and could discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
• Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Source: Facilitating Learning by Lucas and Corpuz (Lorimar Publishing)

11 Things You Should Never Put on Your Resume

A new batch of December graduates is getting ready to fly the coop in search of a job and we hope they've already heard the bad news: There are a lot of unemployed people out there. If the market far exceeds demand, how do you make sure you get past the resume screening process into the interviewing round? By making sure your resume is flawless. "Somewhere between 95 to 99% of resumes have stuff that shouldn't be on there," Eli Amdur, senior coach and adviser from the Amdur Coaching and Advisory Group, told us. "The general rule is if you put anything on there that distracts the reader from your real accomplishments, then don't do it. Resumes need to be concise and clear." We've compiled some tips from career experts to make sure your resume steers clear of the trash pile.

1. Get rid of the objective.

If you applied, it's already obvious you want the job.

2. Cut out all the irrelevant work experiences.

If you're still listing that prized shift leader position from your high school days, it's time to move on.

Yes, you might've been the "king of making milkshakes," but unless you're planning on redeeming that title, it's time to get rid of all that clutter.

3. Take a pass on the personal stuff: marital status, religious preference and Social Security numbers.

This might've been the standard in the past, but all of this information is now illegal for your employer to ask you so there's no need to include it. It will likely only hurt your chances of getting the position more than it would help you, says Catherine Jewell, author of the book "New Résumé, New Career." 

Another piece of personal information you should never include on your resume is your Social Security number, Sara Player, client support specialist for CareerBuilder.com, told us. Player isn't actually sure why people decide to include their social security numbers, but she knows she sees it all too often and it's unnecessary, not to mention, a little risky.

4. Don't let your resume exceed one page.

Yes, this might be difficult if you've had a lot of experience and you're proud of all of it. But just because you're proud doesn't mean it's necessarily relevant. Cut it down; employers don't have the time to read two whole pages. CareerBuilder.com's Sara Player says: "Keep your work history short and to the point. When you describe what you have achieved while in the position, try putting it in bullet form and put what is most important first."

5. Don't list your hobbies.

"Nobody cares — it's not your facebook profile," Player says.

In other words, don't put anything on your resume that's irrelevant to your job. If it's not relevant, then it's a waste of space and a waste of the company's time.

6. Don't give them the chance to guess your age.

Yes, your age is included in personal data, but if you don't want to be discriminated from a position because of your age, it's time to remove your graduation date, says Catherine Jewell. Doug Hadley of Mansfield, Texas, told MSN that he's begun to leave out the fact that he's a published author: "I don't want to have to omit such things, but I feel as though I don't even get considered if they are on my resume." Sara Player advises to take out higher education if it's irrelevant to the position you're applying for or if you keep receiving rejection letters stating that you're overqualified.

7. Don't write your resume in the third person.

Charlotte Beckett, head of Digital at The Good Agency, told Linkedin.com that it's fine to write in first person in your opening statement, but the rest of your resume should be in bullet points, such as:

• Developed and delivered marketing strategies for a range of products

You should not write in the third person since the recruiter knows you're the one writing the resume.

8. Don't include references.

If your employers want to speak to your references, they'll ask you. Also, it's better if you have a chance to tell your references ahead of time that a future employer might be calling.

If you say "references upon request" at the bottom of your resume, you're merely wasting a valuable line, says career coach Eli Amdur.

9. Don't include a less-than-professional email account.

Make a new one. It takes minutes and it's free.

10. There's no need to identify your phone number.

Amdur says there's no reason to put the word "phone" in front of the actual number.

"It's pretty silly. They know it's your phone number." The same rule applies to email.

11. Don't include your current business contact info.

"This is not only dangerous, it's stupid. Do you really want employers calling you at work? How are you going to handle that? Oh, and by the way, your current employer can monitor your e-mails and phone calls. So if you're not in the mood to get fired, or potentially charged with theft of services (really), then leave the business info off."

College: The Defining Years of the Educated Person

“Anak, magsikap ka. Mahirap ang hindi nakatapos ng pag-aaral.”

            These are words we always hear from our parents, especially from those who didn’t have the chance to study themselves. Perhaps many of us are already tired of hearing this piece of advice. But no matter how hard we try, we cannot refute the truth of this statement. In fact, even the most meager of jobs nowadays require a high school diploma. Realizing this, parents strive hard to provide for the education of their children. As soon as a child reaches the age of 4, he is sent to pre-school or day-care. As soon as he finishes kindergarten or preparatory, he then proceeds to six or seven years of grade school. The toil of his parents didn’t end there: after finishing grade school, the child, now in his teens, is then sent to high school. They become proud when he graduates from high school. While many parents are already contented with a high school diploma, still others would strive for something higher: a college degree for their children. This then becomes the ultimate measure of their success. When a student graduates, especially with flying colors at that, it is a big cause for celebration. But when he fails, he is considered a black sheep of the family. This is why any individual who enters college is faced with various challenges.

            One question that must be answered by the college student is, “What are the odds of me getting the job I want?” We must note the use of the word want. Definitely, what the college student must pursue is the degree that he really wants. If the student is still undecided about this, he may discuss choices with his parents, mentors, and even his peers. These people may give choices and advice, but still it is up to the individual to decide. He must carefully weigh all considerations, for if he chooses a course and shifts to another after a year or so, it will be a waste of time and effort. Also, once he chooses a particular course, he must be ready to embrace every aspect of it. To pursue a degree in engineering while hating math is a futile practice. And once you start pursuing a degree, DO YOUR BEST. Do you think an accountancy graduate with low academic performance would be able to land a good job in a reputable company?

            Choosing a career to pursue is one thing. Working towards that goal is another. Always keep in mind that college is far different from grade school or high school. While connections with teachers and friends are very handy (especially those sipsip types and cheatmates) in grade school or high school, you can’t do that in college. You are supposed to do things on your own. Yes, perhaps you are still going to depend on your parents financially. But this time you have to start thinking and working independently, so that later on in life you won’t be a burden to anyone. Yes, in college you’ll meet new friends. Yet you must remember that the primary reason you are in college is because you need to study. So if you need to sacrifice your leisure for the sake of studying, then do it! You can say, “I’m sorry, my friend, but I need to study for an exam. We can go out some other time.” Keep in mind also that in college (and even in other chapters of life), most of learning goes beyond the four corners of the classroom. So don’t get mad if the professor misses some points in a lecture, or doesn’t seem to teach at all. Take such situations as challenges to your learning ability. Make full use of available resources. Libraries are a good source. The Internet has information in abundance. Later on in life, you’ll realize that the skills and attitudes you developed in college would be useful in later endeavors, like when you’re about to start a family.

            Suppose the individual has chosen a career and was able to finish his formal education. The next challenge to the college graduate, and perhaps the most difficult, is to use what he learned to survive the outside world. Have we noticed during our graduation rites the term Commencement Exercises? Perhaps some of us may wonder why a word synonymous to “start” is used when in fact graduation marks the end of formal study. Yes, this is true. But the term Commencement Exercises is used because as it marks the end of one chapter in our lives (our years of study), it also signals the start of another (the establishment of our careers, the search for our own identities). We should be aware of this: that our efforts do not end when we graduate. The years we have spent in studying are but a mere preparation for the greatest challenge there is: LIFE itself. After all, the reason our parents tried hard to finance our studies is because they want us to have a good future. Not that they expect something in return (we can never repay them), but seeing us succeed in college and being able to fend for ourselves and our families are enough to tell them that their efforts had not been in vain.

            We have seen that a person’s years in college mold and define who he is, for it is during this time when he starts to decide what he wants and assert it, develop the skills and attitudes necessary for him to achieve it, so that later on in life he’ll be able to support himself and his family.

Student Diversity

You've probably heard someone say, "Everyone is unique."

Though it sounds really like a cliche, one cannot ignore the truth in it. As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to consider the individual differences among the students in planning for effective instruction.

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some way different from them. Factors such as gender; racial, ethnic or cultural background are just some of the differences we can see. Diversity also comes from other factors like the following:

1. Socio-economic status
2. Thinking and learning style
3. Exceptionalities

How Student Diversity enriches the Learning Environment

A teacher may be challenged to handle a class with students so diverse. There may be students having different cultural backgrounds, different language abilities, different attitudes, aptitudes, and behaviors. Some teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place not just for her students but for herself as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect and celebrate diversity! Read on to discover the benefits and learning opportunities that student diversity can bring into your classroom.

1. Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different, students are given reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values, and behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially important for promoting the cognitive development of the learners. US Supreme Court Justice William J. Brennan said that "The classroom is peculiarly the marketplace of ideas". The depth and breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied approaches to the learning process. Over one hundred years ago, the German philosopher Nietzsche said that "The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity be".

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society. Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity: "The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity." Furthermore, she argues: "The classroom can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a public place where community can be practiced."

4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning processes, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another, on learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of backgrounds.


Source: Facilitating Learning by Lucas and Corpuz, Lorimar Publishing

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)

“Computer-assisted instruction” (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many educational computer programs are available online and from computer stores and textbook companies. They enhance teacher instruction in several ways.

Computer programs are interactive and can illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow students to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program shows students how to correctly answer the question. Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction improves instruction for students with disabilities because students receive immediate feedback and do not continue to practice the wrong skills. Many computer programs can move through instruction at the student’s pace and keep track of the student’s errors and progress. Computers capture the students’ attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students’ spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer-assisted instruction moves at the students’ pace and usually does not move ahead until they have mastered the skill. Programs provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average, or gifted.

 

 

Source: http://www.k8accesscenter.org/training_resources/computeraided_math.asp

You Can (by David Archuleta)

Take me where I've never been
Help me on my feet again
Show me that good things come to those who wait
Tell me I'm not on my own
Tell me I won't be alone
Tell me what I'm feeling isn't some mistake
'Cause if anyone can make me fall in love,
You can

Set me from myself, you can
And it's you and no one else
If I could wish upon tomorrow
Tonight would never end
If you asked me I would follow
But for now I'll just pretend
'Cause if anyone can make me fall in love,
You can

Baby, when you look at me
Tell me what do you see
Are these the eyes of someone you could love?
'Cause everything that brought me here
Well, now it all seems so clear
Baby, you're the one that I've been dreaming of
If anyone can make me fall in love,
You can

Set me from myself, you can
And it's you and no one else
If I could wish upon tomorrow
Tonight would never end
If you asked me I would follow
But for now I'll just pretend
'Cause if anyone can make me fall in love,

Baby, you can take me
Sailin' in your deepest eyes
Bring me to my knees and make me cry
No one's ever done this
Everything was just a lie
And I know,
Yes I know

This is where it all begins
So tell me it'll never end
I can fool myself with you and no one else

If I could wish upon tomorrow
Tonight would never end
If you asked me I would follow
But for now I'll just pretend
If anyone can make me fall in love,
You can

Show me that good things come to those who wait

On Conic Sections

Certain geometric figures are called conic sections because they are formed by intersecting a plane with a right circular cone in some certain way. Four conic sections are to be discussed here:

• Circle
• Ellipse
• Parabola
• Hyperbola

The Circle


If we intersect a plane and a cone in such a way that the plane is parallel to the base of the cone, we form our first conic section: the circle.


A circle is the set of all points on a plane that have a common distance from a fixed point. The fixed point is called the center of the circle, and the common distance is called the circle's radius.


When graphed in the xy-plane, the standard form of an equation of a circle with center at (h,k) and radius r is given by 

(x – h)² + (y – k)² = r²

In particular, if the center is at the origin (0,0) the equation is

x² + y² = r²

The Ellipse

Let's go back to the plane-cone intersection. If this time we tilt the plane at some acute angle, then the circle becomes somewhat flattened, and we have our next conic section: the ellipse.

An ellipse is the set of all points on a plane such that the sum of their distances between two fixed points is a constant. The fixed points are called the foci (plural of focus) of the ellipse.

In the xy-plane, the standard form of an equation of an ellipse with center at (h,k) is

(x – h)²/a² + (y – k)²/b² = r²

In particular, if the center is at the origin (0,0), the equation is

x ²/a² + y²/b² = r²

 In both cases, the foci are of distance c from the center, where    c² = a² – b²
 
The major axis (the segment that contains the foci) has length 2a, while the minor axis has length 2b. These two axes intersect at the center.



The Parabola

Let's go back to the plane-cone intersection we have been talking about. This time let us tilt the plane further so that it intersects with the cone's base. Notice that we have formed an open figure this time. This is our third conic section: the parabola.

A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line. The fixed point is called the focus, and the fixed line is the directrix. There is one point on the parabola that goes halfway between the focus and the directrix: this is called the vertex. The line that contains the focus and vertex is called the parabola's axis.

Suppose we situate our parabola such that the vertex is at the origin (0,0) and the axis is parallel to the y-axis. Then an equation for such a parabola is

 y = ax²

where a = 1/(4p) and p is the distance from the focus to the parabola or from the parabola to the directrix. If a is positive, the parabola opens upward. If negative, then it opens downward.

Now, if the axis of the parabola is parallel to the x-axis, then the equation becomes

x = ay²

This time, if a is positive the parabola opens to the right. If negative, then it opens to the left.









The Hyperbola


Let's take two right circular cones, place them tip to tip, just like the sides of an hourglass. Suppose we intersect a plane such that it is perpendicular to both bases of the cones. We have formed our fourth and last conic section: the hyperbola. Notice that the hyperbola is actually two parabolas opening in opposite directions from each other.


A hyperbola is the set of all points on a plane such that the difference of their distances from two fixed points is a constant. Notice that this definition is similar to that of the ellipse: only that we change the "sum" into "difference". The two fixed points are likewise called the foci of the hyperbola.


The equation of a hyperbola is the same as that of the ellipse, but we change the plus sign into a minus sign. The hyperbola has two asymptotes,

y = (b/a)x   and   y = -(b/a)x

An asymptote to a curve is a line that the curve almost reaches but never actually touches. It serves as some kind of boundary.

Source: Calculus: Concepts and Contexts 2nd Edition by James Stewart